AI and the Fragmentation of Legal Sovereignty: A Comparative Analysis in BRICS Nations
https://doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2026-13-2-184-207
Abstract
In the 21st century, state sovereignty is undergoing a profound transformation, largely driven by advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and the changing landscape of jurisprudential autonomy and structural power. This article explores how AI is challenging traditional notions of sovereignty and influencing states in the interaction with each other and with emerging technologies. The study discusses the ethical and legal dilemmas raised by artificial intelligence, focusing on decision-making procedures, surveillance tools, and regulations on data use. Additionally, it discusses the geopolitical ramifications of AI development, emphasizing the possibility of shifts in power and global competitiveness. Drawing from case studies and scholarly insights, the article suggests that AI’s evolution necessitates reimagining sovereignty, moving towards a more fluid and networked governance model. It underscores the need for global cooperation and ethical frameworks to ensure AI’s responsible development and deployment while safeguarding individual rights and democratic principles.
Keywords
About the Authors
S. Kamaruddin
Tashkent State University of Law
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
Saslina Kamaruddin – Research Fellow, Central Asian Legal Research Centre, Tashkent State University of Law; PhD, Senior Lecturer, Department of Business Management and Entrepreneurship, Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI)
35 Sayilgokh St., Tashkent, 100047
Tanjung Malim, Perak, 35900
M. I. Ikhsan
MARA University of Technology
Malaysia
Malaysia
Muhammad Izwan Ikhsan – BLS (Hons), LLB (Hons), LLM Lecturer, Department of Law
Beg Berkunci 71, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, 88997
N. S. Nautiyal
National Forensic Sciences University
India
India
Navtika Singh Nautiyal – PhD, Assistant Professor, Forensic Justice and Policy Studies Department
Sector-9, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382007
References
1. Allen, J. R., & Husain, A. (2017). The next space race is artificial intelligence. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/11/03/the-next-space-race-is-artificial-intelligence-and-america-is-losing-to-china/
2. Andreeva, E. L. (2026). The problems of information sovereignty in the BRICS countries. BRICS Law Journal, 13(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2026-13-1-76-88
3. Aydın, A., & Bensghir, T. K. (2019). Digital data sovereignty: Towards a conceptual framework. In 2019 1st International Informatics and Software Engineering Conference (UBMYK), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ubmyk48245.2019.8965469
4. Bakhteev, D. V., Sosnovikova, A. M., & Kazenas, E. V. (2024). Overcoming illegal cross-border transfer of personal data. Journal of Digital Technologies and Law, 2(4), 943–972. https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2024.45
5. Belli, L., & Doneda, D. (2023). Data protection in the BRICS countries: legal interoperability through innovative practices and convergence. International Data Privacy Law, 13(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipac019
6. Bendett, S., et al. (2021). Advanced military technology in Russia. Chatham House.
7. Bodin, J. (1992). On sovereignty: Four chapters from the six books of the commonwealth. Cambridge University Press.
8. Brauneis, R., & Goodman, E. P. (2018). Algorithmic transparency for the smart city. Yale Journal of Law & Technology, 20, 103–176. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3012499
9. Briscoe, E., & Fairbanks, J. (2020). Artificial scientific intelligence and its impact on national security and foreign policy. Orbis, 64(4), 544–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2020.08.004
10. Bryson, J. J., Diamantis, M. E., & Grant, T. D. (2017). Of, for, and by the people: The legal lacuna of synthetic persons. Artificial Intelligence and Law, 25, 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-017-9214-9
11. Couture, S., & Toupin, S. (2017). What does the concept of sovereignty mean in digital, network and technological sovereignty? GigaNet: Global Internet Governance Academic Network, Annual Symposium. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3107272
12. Crawford, K. (2021). The atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence. Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1ghv45t
13. Creemers, R. (2022). China’s emerging data protection framework. Journal of Cybersecurity, 8(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyac01
14. de Freitas Júnior, A. R., Zapolla, L. F., & Cunha, P. F. N. (2024). The regulation of artificial intelligence in Brazil. ILR Review, 77(5), 869–878. https://doi.org/10.1177/00197939241278956g
15. Egorova, T. (2013). Personal data legislation in Russia. International In-House Counsel Journal, 7(26), 1–16.
16. Erdélyi, O., & Goldsmith, J. (2018). Regulating artificial intelligence: Proposal for a global solution. Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society. https://doi.org/10.1145/3278721.3278731
17. Filgueiras, F. (2022). The politics of AI: Democracy and authoritarianism in developing countries. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 19(4), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2021.2016543
18. Filgueiras, F., & Junquilho, T. A. (2023). The Brazilian (non)perspective on national strategy for artificial intelligence. Discover Artificial Intelligence, 3(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44163-023-00052-w
19. Formosa, P., Wilson, M., & Richards, D. (2021). A principlist framework for cyber-security ethics. Computers & Security, 109, 102382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2021.102382
20. Gadoni, C. R. (2023). The effects on local innovation arising from replicating the GDPR into the Brazilian General Data Protection Law. Internet Policy Review, 12(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.14763/2023.1.1686
21. Gitelman, L. (Ed). (2013). Raw data is an oxymoron. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9302.001.0001
22. Goode, J. P. (2021). Artificial intelligence and the future of nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 27(2), 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12684
23. Grittersová, J. (1999). The evolution of the concept and the role of sovereignty. Medzinárodné otázky, 105–117.
24. Hancock, B., et al. (2025). Understanding Russia’s cyber policies, strategies, and doctrines. Military Cyber Affairs, 8(1), 1–26.
25. Harari, Y. N. (2016). Homo Deus: A brief history of tomorrow. Random House.
26. Harari, Y. N. (2023, April 28). Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI has hacked the operating system of human civilisation. The Economist.
27. Haworth, L. (2018). The latest wave of internet blocking in Russia—what’s behind it and if it matters. Gaming Law Review, 22(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1089/glr2.2018.2215
28. Henkin, L. (1995). Human rights and state sovereignty. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 25, 31–46.
29. Hobbes, T. (1968). Leviathan. Penguin Books.
30. Horowitz, M. C. (2018). Artificial intelligence, international competition, and the balance of power. Texas National Security Review, 1(3), 37–57.
31. Hudson, V. M. (2019). Artificial intelligence and international politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429033575
32. Ienca, M., & Vayena, E. (2020). On the responsible use of digital data to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature Medicine, 26(4), 463–464. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0832-5
33. Joyce, S. C. (2021). AI as a collaborator in the early stage of the design. In C. Lange & D. Sun (Eds.), The Routledge companion to artificial intelligence in architecture (pp. 130–159). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367824259-9
34. Kathuria, Y., et al. (2024). Responsible AI impact assessment mechanism for India: A robust strategy for effective governance of AI systems in the country. AIP Conference Proceedings, 3220(1), 040010. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0234670
35. Kavanagh, C. (2019). New tech, new threats, and new governance challenges: An opportunity to craft smarter responses? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
36. Kello, L. (2023) The state in the digital era. In Digital international relations (pp. 51–72). Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003437963-4
37. Kendall-Taylor, A., Frantz, E., & Wright, J. (2020). The digital dictators: How technology strengthens autocracy. Foreign Affairs, 99(2), 103–115.
38. König, P. D., & Wenzelburger, G. (2020). Opportunity for renewal or disruptive force? How artificial intelligence alters democratic politics. Government Information Quarterly, 37(3), 101489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2020.101489
39. Kozyulin, V. (2023). Assessing Russia’s national strategy for AI development. In M. Raska & R. A. Bitzinger (Eds.), The AI wave in defence innovation (pp. 156–178). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003218326-8
40. LaBrie, R. C., & Steinke, G. (2019). Towards a framework for ethical audits of AI algorithms. Americas Conference on Information Systems.
41. Lange, K. (2016, May 31). 3rd offset strategy 101: what it is, what the tech focuses are. DoD Live.
42. Luz, J. C. J. (2025). Role of data protection authorities in Nigeria (NDPC) and Brazil (ANPD). NDPC – International Journal of Data Privacy and Protection, 156–170.
43. Madhusudan, V. V. (2024). A critical analysis of Information Technology Act, 2000 with reference to cyber offence and cyber security. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, 7(2), 25–29.
44. Manheim, K., & Kaplan, L. (2019). Artificial intelligence: Risks to privacy and democracy. Yale Journal of Law & Technology, 21, 106–188.
45. Mendes, L. S., & Kira, B. (2025). Brussels to Brasilia: Brazil’s distinct path in AI regulation. In S. Simitis &. I. Spiecker genannt Döhmann (Eds.), Digital Constitutionalism (pp. 345–364). Nomos. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783748938644-345
46. Migliorini, S. (2024). China’s interim measures on generative AI: Origin, content and significance. Computer Law & Security Review, 53, 105985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105985
47. Naithani, P. (2025). Analysis of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. International Journal of Law and Management, 67(5), 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlma-05-2024-0174
48. Neto, G. P. J., Farias da Costa, V. C., & Gaspar, W. B. (2024). Brazil’s Artificial Intelligence Plan (PBIA) of 2024: Enabler of AI sovereignty? African Journal of Information and Communication, 2024(34), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.23962/ajic.i34.20424
49. Neznamov, A. V., Chache, E. G., & Churilova, D. Y. (2025). What is “regulatory path” for Russia? Legal Issues in the Digital Age, 6(3), 4–22. https://doi.org/10.17323/2713-2749.2025.3.4.22
50. Pencheva, I., et al. (2020). Big data and AI—A transformational shift for government: So, what next for research? Public Policy and Administration, 35(1), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076718780537
51. Peters, U. (2022). Algorithmic political bias in artificial intelligence systems. Philosophy & Technology, 35(2), article number 25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-022-00512-8
52. Philpott, D. (1999). Westphalia, authority, and international society. Political Studies, 47(3), 566–589. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.00217
53. Philpott, D. (2001). Usurping the sovereignty of sovereignty? World Politics, 53(2), 297–324. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2001.0006
54. Philpott, D. (2016). Sovereignty. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
55. Pushkarev, V., & Solomatina, A. (2025). Computer information crimes and other cybercrimes: Comparative legal analysis of the legislation of the BRICS countries. BRICS Law Journal, 12(4), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2025-12-4-167-190
56. Rajagopalan, A. S. (2021). International personal data transfer: An analysis of Brazil’s legal system and new LGPD under the adequacy standard of the EU GDPR. Journal of Data Protection & Privacy, 4(3), 260–272. https://doi.org/10.69554/msqx9692
57. Schmitt, L. (2022). Mapping global AI governance: A nascent regime in a fragmented landscape. AI and Ethics, 2(2), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-021-00083-y
58. Seymour, J., & Tully, Ph. (2016). Weaponising data science for social engineering: Automated E2E spear phishing on Twitter. Black Hat USA, 37, 1–39.
59. Shi, L., et al. (2024). Enhancing social cohesion with cooperative bots in societies of greedy, mobile individuals. PNAS Nexus. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnasnexus.pgae223
60. Simmons-Edler, R., et al. (2024). AI-powered autonomous weapons risk geopolitical instability and threaten AI research. Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 235, 45508–45524. https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.01859
61. Singh, S. (2024). Regulation of cross-border data flow and its privacy in the digital era. NUJS Journal of Regulatory Studies, 9, 38. https://doi.org/10.69953/njrs.v9i2.9
62. Sørensen, G. (1999). Sovereignty: Change and continuity in a fundamental institution. Political Studies, 47(3), 590–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.00218
63. Sudmann, A. (2019). The democratization of artificial intelligence: Net politics in the era of learning algorithms. Transcript.
64. Timmers, P. (2019). Ethics of AI and cybersecurity when sovereignty is at stake. Minds and Machines, 29(4), 635–645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-019-09508-4
65. Usman, H., Nawaz, B., & Nasser, S. (2023). The future of state sovereignty in the age of artificial intelligence. Journal of Law & Social Studies, 5(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.52279/jlss.05.02.142152
66. Vincent, J. (2017). Putin says the nation that leads in AI will be the ruler of the world. The Verge, 4(10). https://www.theverge.com/2017/9/4/16251226/russia-ai-putin-rule-the-world.
67. Work, B. (2016, April 28). Remarks by deputy secretary work on third offset strategy. US Department of Defense. https://www.war.gov/News/Speeches/Speech/Article/753482/remarks-by-deputy-secretary-work-on-third-offset-strategy/
68. Wright, N. D. (2019). Artificial intelligence, China, Russia, and the global order. Air University Press.
69. Yang, F., & Yao, Y. (2022). A new regulatory framework for algorithm-powered recommendation services in China. Nature Machine Intelligence, 4(10), 802–803. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00546-9
70. Yi-Chen, Z. (2025). China’s Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL) 2021: An analysis. Modern Jurisprudence, 3(3).
71. Zeng, J. (2020). Artificial intelligence and China’s authoritarian governance. International Affairs, 96(6), 1441–1459.
72. Zhao, S. (Ed.). (2025). The making of China’s artificial intelligence and cyber security policy: Players, governance, and global ambition. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003627654
Review
For citations:
Kamaruddin S., Ikhsan M.I., Nautiyal N.S. AI and the Fragmentation of Legal Sovereignty: A Comparative Analysis in BRICS Nations. BRICS Law Journal. 2026;13(2):184-207. https://doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2026-13-2-184-207
Views:
64
JATS XML
Email this article 